Acquired Antibody Responses against Plasmodium vivax Infection Vary with Host Genotype for Duffy Antigen Receptor for Chemokines (DARC)

Background

Polymorphism of the Duffy Antigen Receptor for Chemokines (DARC) is associated with susceptibility to and the severity of Plasmodium vivax malaria in humans. P. vivax uses DARC to invade erythrocytes. Individuals lacking DARC are ‘resistant’ to P. vivax erythrocytic infection. However, susceptibility to P. vivax in DARC+ individuals is reported to vary between specific DARC genotypes. We hypothesized that the natural acquisition of antibodies to P. vivax blood stages may vary with the host genotype and the level of DARC expression. Furthermore, high parasitemia has been reported to effect the acquisition of immunity against pre-erythrocytic parasites. We investigated the correlation between host DARC genotypes and the frequency and magnitude of antibodies against P. vivax erythrocytic stage antigens.

Methodology/Findings

We assessed the frequencies and magnitudes of antibody responses against P. vivax and P. falciparum sporozoite and erythrocytic antigens in Colombian donors from malaria-endemic regions. The frequency and level of naturally-acquired antibodies against the P. vivax erythrocytic antigens merozoite surface protein 1 (PvMSP1) and Duffy binding protein (PvDBP) varied with the host DARC genotypes. Donors with one negative allele (FY*B/FY*Bnull and FY*A/FY*Bnull) were more likely to have anti-PvMSP1 and anti-PvDBP antibodies than those with two positive alleles (FY*B/FY*B and FY*A/FY*B). The lower IgG3 and IgG1 components of the total IgG response may account for the decreased responses to P. vivax erythrocytic antigens with FY*A/FY*B and FY*B/FY*B genotypes. No such association was detected with P. falciparum erythrocytic antigens, which does not use DARC for erythrocyte invasion.

Conclusion/Significance

Individuals with higher DARC expression, which is associated with higher susceptibility to P. vivax infection, exhibited low frequencies and magnitudes of P. vivax blood-stage specific antibody responses. This may indicate that one of the primary mechanisms by which P. vivax evades host immunity is through DARC indirectly down-regulating humoral responses against erythrocytic invasion and development.     

Methods to produce induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells: Mesenchymal stem cells from induced pluripotent stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have received significant attention in recent years due to their large potential for cell therapy. Indeed, they secrete a wide variety of immunomodulatory factors of interest for the treatment of immune-related disorders and inflammatory diseases. MSCs can be extracted from multiple tissues of the human body. However, several factors may restrict their use for clinical applications: the requirement of invasive procedures for their isolation, their limited numbers, and their heterogeneity according to the tissue of origin or donor. In addition, MSCs often present early signs of replicative senescence limiting their expansion in vitro, and their therapeutic capacity in vivo. Due to the clinical potential of MSCs, a considerable number of methods to differentiate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into MSCs have emerged. iPSCs represent a new reliable, unlimited source to generate MSCs (MSCs derived from iPSC, iMSCs) from homogeneous and well-characterized cell lines, which would relieve many of the above mentioned technical and biological limitations. Additionally, the use of iPSCs prevents some of the ethical concerns surrounding the use of human embryonic stem cells. In this review, we analyze the main current protocols used to differentiate human iPSCs into MSCs, which we classify into five different categories: MSC Switch, Embryoid Body Formation, Specific Differentiation, Pathway Inhibitor, and Platelet Lysate. We also evaluate common and method-specific culture components and provide a list of positive and negative markers for MSC characterization. Further guidance on material requirements to produce iMSCs with these methods and on the phenotypic features of the iMSCs obtained is added. The information may help researchers identify protocol options to design and/or refine standardized procedures for large-scale production of iMSCs fitting clinical demands.     

Hunter-gatherer males are more risk-seeking than females,even in late childhood

Observed economic and labor disparities between the sexes may, in part, result from evolved sex differences in risk preferences. Using incentivized economic games, we report on sex differences in risk preferences in the Hadza, a population of hunter-gatherers. One game played in 2010 (n = 233) found that more Hadza males than females prefer to gamble for a chance to earn more maize rather than settle for a sure, but smaller, amount. Similarly, a second game played in 2013 (n = 102) found that male Hadza gamble a greater proportion of honey for a chance to earn more compared to female Hadza. Effect sizes are small to medium. We find weak evidence that risk-taking increases in men as their mating opportunities increase. In both games, the sex difference widens throughout childhood and is greatest among adolescents; though note that child samples are small. We explore developmental trends further using observational data on food returns in children (n = 357). Our data suggest that while the mean number of calories boys bring to camp remains stable with age, the variance in their caloric returns increases. Among girls, the variance remains stable with increased age. Both the economic games and food return data are consistent with the sexual division of labor wherein boys, beginning in late childhood, begin to target riskier foods. To the extent that the Hadza allow us to make inferences about long-standing patterns of human behavior, we suggest that sex differences in risk preferences may have been present long before agriculture and the modern work environment.     

A hierarchical multi‐scale analysis of the spatial relationship between parasitism and host density in urban habitats

Studies on spatial density dependence in parasitism have paid scarce attention to how changes in host density at different hierarchical scales could influence parasitism in an herbivore at a particular scale. Here, we evaluated if rates of parasitism per leaf (by the whole parasitic complex and by dominant species) of the specialist leaf miner Liriomyza commelinae (Diptera: Agromyzidae) respond to variations in host density at the leaf, plant patch and site levels in an urban setting. We used multi‐level Bayesian models that incorporate the spatial hierarchy occurring in this system, as well as habitat factors previously found to have an effect on the L. commelinae parasitoid community in an urban context (patch size, patch isolation and urbanization level). According to the fitted model, overall parasitism rates decreased with increasing number of mines per leaf, being independent of host‐density variations at patch and site level. Patch structure was found to have a strong effect on parasitism rates per leaf. The analysis of parasitism by parasitoid species separately showed consistent results with the response at community level. These results suggest that parasitism of the parasitoid community here studied would be sensitive to hierarchical cues related to the host at the leaf level and to the host habitat at the patch level.     

Chibby1 knockdown promotes mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition-like changes

Chibby1 (Cby1) was originally isolated as a binding partner for β-catenin, a dual function protein in cell-cell adhesion and in canonical Wnt signaling. The canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway is dysregulated in various diseases including cancer, most notably of the gastrointestinal origin. To investigate the role of Cby1 in colorectal tumorigenesis, we generated stable Cby1-knockdown (K_D) SW480 colon cancer cells. Unexpectedly, we found that Cby1 K_D induces mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET)-like changes in SW480 as well as in HEK293 cells. Cby1-K_D cells displayed a cuboidal epithelial morphology with tight cell-cell contacts. In Cby1-K_D cells, the plasma membrane localization of E-cadherin and β-catenin was dramatically increased with formation of cortical actin rings, while the levels of the mesenchymal marker vimentin were decreased. Consistent with these changes, in wound healing assays, Cby1-K_D cells exhibited epithelial cell-like properties as they migrated collectively as epithelial sheets. Furthermore, the anchorage-independent growth of Cby1-K_D cells was reduced as determined by soft agar assays. These findings suggest that chronic Cby1 K_D in colon cancer cells may counteract tumor progression by promoting the MET process.     

Autophagy is required for gamete differentiation in the moss Physcomitrella patens

Autophagy, a major catabolic process in eukaryotes, was initially related to cell tolerance to nutrient depletion. In plants autophagy has also been widely related to tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses (through the induction or repression of programmed cell death, PCD) as well as to promotion of developmentally regulated PCD, starch degradation or caloric restriction important for life span. Much less is known regarding its role in plant cell differentiation. Here we show that macroautophagy, the autophagy pathway driven by engulfment of cytoplasmic components by autophagosomes and its subsequent degradation in vacuoles, is highly active during germ cell differentiation in the early diverging land plant Physcomitrella patens. Our data provide evidence that suppression of ATG5-mediated autophagy results in reduced density of the egg cell-mediated mucilage that surrounds the mature egg, pointing toward a potential role of autophagy in extracellular mucilage formation. In addition, we found that ATG5- and ATG7-mediated autophagy is essential for the differentiation and cytoplasmic reduction of the flagellated motile sperm and hence for sperm fertility. The similarities between the need of macroautophagy for sperm differentiation in moss and mouse are striking, strongly pointing toward an ancestral function of autophagy not only as a protector against nutrient stress, but also in gamete differentiation.     

A good gut feeling on Sarm1-mediated axon degeneration

Axons,the cable-like projections of neurons,experience a wide range of stressors throughout their lifetimes.The result of any one of these challenges can be catastrophic,promoting degeneration of the axon.Axon degeneration is an active signaling process observed in traumatic brain injury,chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathies,and neu-rodegenerative disease (Simon and Watkins,2018;Coleman and Hoeke,2020).As a result,tremendous efforts have been made to identify biological targets that can be hamessed to block axon degeneration to treat these axonopathies.One promising candidate is Sarm1 (sterile alpha and TIR motif containing protein 1),a member of the Myd88 immune adaptor protein family that itself has no clear role in innate immunity.     

Wettability,Polarity, and Water Absorption of Holm Oak Leaves: Effect of Leaf Side and Age

Plant trichomes play important protective functions and may have a major influence on leaf surface wettability. With the aim of gaining insight into trichome structure, composition, and function in relation to water-plant surface interactions, we analyzed the adaxial and abaxial leaf surface of holm oak (Quercus ilex) as a model. By measuring the leaf water potential 24 h after the deposition of water drops onto abaxial and adaxial surfaces, evidence for water penetration through the upper leaf side was gained in young and mature leaves. The structure and chemical composition of the abaxial (always present) and adaxial (occurring only in young leaves) trichomes were analyzed by various microscopic and analytical procedures. The adaxial surfaces were wettable and had a high degree of water drop adhesion in contrast to the highly unwettable and water-repellent abaxial holm oak leaf sides. The surface free energy and solubility parameter decreased with leaf age, with higher values determined for the adaxial sides. All holm oak leaf trichomes were covered with a cuticle. The abaxial trichomes were composed of 8% soluble waxes, 49% cutin, and 43% polysaccharides. For the adaxial side, it is concluded that trichomes and the scars after trichome shedding contribute to water uptake, while the abaxial leaf side is highly hydrophobic due to its high degree of pubescence and different trichome structure, composition, and density. Results are interpreted in terms of water-plant surface interactions, plant surface physical chemistry, and plant ecophysiology.Plant surfaces have an important protecting function against multiple biotic and abiotic stress factors (Riederer, 2006). They may, for example, limit the attack of insects (Eigenbrode and Jetter, 2002) or pathogenic fungi (Gniwotta et al., 2005; Łaźniewska et al., 2012), avoid damage caused by high intensities of UV and visible radiation (Reicosky and Hanover, 1978; Karabourniotis and Bormann, 1999), help to regulate leaf temperature (Ehleringer and Björkman, 1978; Ripley et al., 1999), and chiefly prevent plant organs from dehydration (Riederer and Schreiber, 2001).The epidermis of plants has been found to have a major degree of physical and chemical variability and may often contain specialized cells such as trichomes or stomata (Roth-Nebelsick et al., 2009; Javelle et al., 2011). Most aerial organs are covered with an extracellular and generally lipid-rich layer named the cuticle, which is typically composed of waxes embedded in (intracuticular waxes) or deposited on (epicuticular waxes) a biopolymer matrix of cutin, forming a network of cross-esterified hydroxy C₁₆ and/or C₁₈ fatty acids, and/or cutan, with variable amounts of polysaccharides and phenolics (Domínguez et al., 2011; Yeats and Rose, 2013). Different nano- and/or microscale levels of plant surface sculpturing have been observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), generally in relation to the topography of epicuticular waxes, cuticular folds, and epidermal cells (Koch and Barthlott, 2009). Such surface features together with their chemical composition (Khayet and Fernández, 2012) may lead to a high degree of roughness and hydrophobicity (Koch and Barthlott, 2009; Konrad et al., 2012). The interactions of plant surfaces with water have been addressed in some investigations (Brewer et al., 1991; Brewer and Smith, 1997; Pandey and Nagar, 2003; Hanba et al., 2004; Dietz et al., 2007; Holder, 2007a, 2007b; Fernández et al., 2011, 2014; Roth-Nebelsick et al., 2012; Wen et al., 2012; Urrego-Pereira et al., 2013) and are a topic of growing interest for plant ecophysiology (Helliker and Griffiths, 2007; Aryal and Neuner, 2010; Limm and Dawson, 2010; Kim and Lee, 2011; Berry and Smith, 2012; Berry et al., 2013; Rosado and Holder, 2013; Helliker, 2014). On the other hand, the mechanisms of foliar uptake of water and solutes by plant surfaces are still not fully understood (Fernández and Eichert, 2009; Burkhardt and Hunsche, 2013), but they may play an important ecophysiological role (Limm et al., 2009; Johnstone and Dawson, 2010; Adamec, 2013; Berry et al., 2014).The importance of trichomes and pubescent layers on water drop-plant surface interactions and on the subsequent potential water uptake into the organs has been analyzed in some investigations (Fahn, 1986; Brewer et al., 1991; Grammatikopoulos and Manetas, 1994; Brewer and Smith, 1997; Pierce et al., 2001; Kenzo et al., 2008; Fernández et al., 2011, 2014; Burrows et al., 2013). Trichomes are unicellular or multicellular and glandular or nonglandular appendages, which originate from epidermal cells only and develop outwards on the surface of plant organs (Werker, 2000). Nonglandular trichomes are categorized according to their morphology and exhibit a major variability in size, morphology, and function. On the other hand, glandular trichomes are classified by the secretory materials they excrete, accumulate, or absorb (Johnson, 1975; Werker, 2000; Wagner et al., 2004). Trichomes can be often found in xeromorphic leaves and in young organs (Fahn, 1986; Karabourniotis et al., 1995). The occurrence of protecting leaf trichomes has been also reported for Mediterranean species such as holm oak (Quercus ilex; Karabourniotis et al., 1995, 1998; Morales et al., 2002; Karioti et al., 2011; Camarero et al., 2012). There is limited information about the nature of the surface of trichomes, but they are also covered with a cuticle similarly to other epidermal cell types (Fernández et al., 2011, 2014).In this study and using holm oak as a model, we assessed, for the first time, the leaf surface-water relations of the abaxial (always pubescent) versus the adaxial (only pubescent in developing leaves and for a few months) surface, including their capacity to absorb surface-deposited water drops. Based on membrane science methodologies (Fernández et al., 2011; Khayet and Fernández, 2012) and following a new integrative approach, the chemical, physical, and anatomical properties of holm oak leaf surfaces and trichomes were analyzed, with the aim of addressing the following questions. Are young and mature adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces capable of absorbing water deposited as drops on to the surfaces? Are young and mature abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces similar in relation to their wettability, hydrophobicity, polarity, work of adhesion (W_a) for water, solubility parameter (δ), and surface free energy (γ)? What is the physical and chemical nature of the adaxial versus the abaxial trichomes, chiefly in relation to young leaves?